By Lars Skyttner (auth.)
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Additional resources for General Systems Theory: An Introduction
Example text
As rare as the concept of a closed system is that of a solitarily existing open system. Generally, systems are part of other systems and are included in a hierarchy of systems. Systems theory regards the concept of hierarchy as a universal principle existing in inorganic nature, in organic and social life and in the cosmos. In a hierarchic structure, subsets of a whole are ranked regressively as smaller or less complex units until the lowest level is reached. The lowest level elements build subsystems that in tum structure the system, which itself is a part of a superior suprasystem.
The differences between open and closed systems are relative. An organism is a typical example of an open system but, taken together with its environment, it may be considered as a closed system. Expressed in terms of entropy, open systems are negentropic, that is, tend toward a more elaborate structure. As open systems, organisms which are in a steady state are capable of working for a long time by use of the constant input of matter and energy. Closed systems, however, increase their entropy, tend to run down and can therefore be called 'dying systems'.
Presented a metaphysical vision of hierarchic order in nature - in his biological systematics. His finalistic, or teleological, natural philosophy represents a rather advanced systems thinking for the time. Closer to our own era, Fredrich Hegel (1770-1831) formulated the following statements concerning the nature of systems. • • • • The The The The whole is more than the sum of the parts. whole defines the nature of the parts. parts cannot be understood by studying the whole. parts are dynamically interrelated or interdependent.